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khar_muurIt's the National Day of Mongolia again, people. This time I'm writing about the history of the main local religions (using my memory and Lonely Planet: Mongolia as reference).
Buddhism
Mongolians have always taken Buddhism of the Tibetan, or Lamaist, variety wholeheartedly. Their warrior spirits were tamed by Tibetan lamas when the Mongolian empire was at its height and the khaans were coming to grips with the complexities or controlling a multicultural empire.
Kublai Khaan found himself with a court in which all philosophies of his empire were represented. Teachers of Islam, Taoism, Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, Confucianism and Buddhism all congregated at court, offering advice in managing state affairs, and offering the Mongols a very comforting form of divine insurance. Of these religions that were represented, Tibetan Buddhism was the one that influenced the mind of the great khaan, probably because of the close resemblance to Mongolia's native shamanism.
It took centuries before Buddhism really took hold. In 1578 Altan Khaan ('golden leader') met the Tibetal leader Sonam Gyatso, was converted, and bestowed on Sonam Gyatso the title Dalai Lama. He issued new laws forbidding the sacrificial slaughter of women, slaves and animals, and ordered that an image of Gongor be worshipped in every ger.
Reincarnate lamas were also (re)born in Mongolia, the most prominent being the Jebtzun Damba, or Living Buddha, who ranks as Tibetan Buddhism's third highest incarnation. The first Jebtzun Damba reincarnation, Zanabazar, had to yield ultimate secular authority to the emperor of China in 1691 (Manchu Qing dynasty). Many of the Manchu emperors were themselves devout Tibetan Buddhists, and their partronage ensured Buddhism flourished thorughout Mongolia. An another reason for such high approval of Mongolians practicing Buddhism was that it had a considerably calming effect on them, much to the relief of the Chinese.
The Jebtzun Damba reincarnations never lost their dream of Mongolian independence, and as soon as Qing China collapsed in 1911, the eighth Jebtzun Damba, or Bogd Khaan, declared Mongolia's independence. He wielded sacred and secular power, as did the Dalai Lama in Tibet.
When the revolution of 1921 brought the communists to power, an uneasy peace existed between Mongolia's monasteries and the government. The communists realised that they were not strong enough to take on the religious establishment, partly because it consisted of such a high number of people. In 1924 the eighth Jebzun Damba died, and the communists prevented a successor from being found. (Mongolians believe that a ninth Jebzun Damba, reincarnated at a later date, is today a middle-aged lama living among other exiled Tibetans in Dharamsala, India.) In 1929 some of the property and herds belonging to the monasteries were seized and redistributed. Arrests and executions came in 1932, but the government quickly backed off as rebellions broke out. However, harassment continued - young lamas were 'reclassified' and conscripted into the army and it was forbidden to build new monasteries.
Arrests of high-ranking lamas resumed in 1935. In 1937 the bloody purge began in earnest; it is estimated that over 17,000 monks of middle and high rank (young students were spared) were arrested never to bee heard from again. Presumably they were either executed or died in Siberian labour camps. The monasteries were closed, ransacked and burned. Only four monasteries out of more than 700 were preserved as museums of the 'feudal period' - but even these were damaged.
Besides ideology, the government had other reasons for wanting to eliminate the lamas. First of all, they didn't work, and the Russians were anxious to send Mongolian labourers to Siberia. Secondly, lamas were celibate and Mongolia's population was either stable or declining, which ran counter to the Marxist goals or 'more people, more production'. Thirdly, the communists believed - with some justification - that the monasteries were backward and opposed to modernisation. Finally, the monasteries were the centre of political and economic power in the country, and the government didn't appreciate the competition.
Except at the monastery Gandan Khiid in Ulaanbaatar - which was kept as a showcase temple to impress foreigners - all religious worship and ceremonies remained outlawed until the democracy movement took hold in 1990. In the past years, there has been a phenomenal revival of Buddhism (and other religions). This is most evident during the Dalai Lama's visits, when hundreds of thousands of people flock to be blessed. Up to 150 monasteries have reopened, and even some ex-Communist Party officials have become lamas.
An entire generation of Mongolians have grown up without Buddhism. Most people no longer understand the Tibetan texts and the monasteries suffer from a chronic lack of trained Buddhist lamas, a problem that is currently being addressed by visiting theological teachers from Tibet, India, and the West.
Monasteries
The 'big three' monasteries: Gandantegchinlen Khiid (Ulaanbaatar); Erdene Zuu Khiid (Kharkhorin, Övörkhangai aimag); Amarbayasgalant Khiid (near the city of Darkhan). Monasteries and temples (süm) always have Tibetan names. After the communist purges, many religious artefacts were returned to the monasteries - though over time, many have been lost forever. Scroll paintings, statues, butter lamp candles, altar cloths and prayer wheels decorate the monasteries and temples, but they are rarely as old as the ones in India or Tibet.
The best time to visit a monastery is around 9 to 11 am, when chanting and prayers are usually in progress. You may enter the temple during chanting but must not step in front of the monks. Instead, go clockwise around the back. You can even go up to the altar, make a small cash offering, and then bow before the altar. You can also bow before the monks, and they will touch your head with their prayer books. (Prayer book thumping!) Taking photographs is forbidden.
Shamanism
Whether shamanism is actually a religion is open to debate, but it is a form of mysticism practiced by some Mongolians in the north, including the Tsaatan, Darkhad, Uriankhai and Buryats. It was the dominant belief system of Chinggis Khaan and the Mongols but has now been pushed to the cultural fringes.
The most obvious manifestation of shamanism in Mongolia is the ovoo, made of stones, wood and other matter, which you see all over the countryside. Shamanism had deep connections to the earth; digging the soil and cutting the grass is seen as profane, and one of the reasons why agriculture has traditionally been looked down on by Mongolians.
Shamaninsm is based around the shaman (boo if male, udgan if female) who has special medical and religious powers. If a shaman's powers are inherited, it is known as udmyn, or if they become apparent after a sudden period of sickness and apparitions it is known as zlain.
Shamans live alone and in isolation, but are available at any time to protect the clan and livestock from disease and evil spirits, known as lus. One of a shaman's main functions is to cure any sickness caused by the soul straying, and to accompany the soul of a dead person to the other world. Shamans act as intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds and communicate with spirits during trances, which can last up to six hours. During the main ceremony, called the Great Sacrifice, often held on the third day of the new lunar year, many animals are sacrificed to the gods. Shamans have traditionally prophesied by interpreting cracks found in the heated shoulder blades of dead sheep.
Shamanism, which fourished during the communist days because no books or buildings could be destroyed, has coexisted with Buddhism for centuries. In fact, Mongolian Buddhism has incorporated shamanic beliefs in a similar way to Tibetan Buddhists adopting the animist Bön religion of pre-Buddhist Tibet. Pockets of shamanism survive, particularly in the Khövsgöl and Dornod aimags, and among the Khoton people of Uvs. Several museums in the aimags, and in Ulaanbaatar, contain shaman clothes and implements, like the drums used to place shamans into a trance.
Christianity
Nestorian Christianity was part of the Mongolian empire long before Western missionaries arrived. These days, with poverty, unemployment, alcoholism, domestic violence and confusion in abundance, Christian and Mormon misssionaries, often from obscure fundamentalist sects, have been keenly seeking converts.
Mongolian authorities are wary of these missionaries, who sometimes come to the country under the pretext of teaching English. In Ulaanbaatar, there are now more than 30 non-Buddhist places of worship, including a new and expensive Catholic Mission Centre.
Buddhism
Mongolians have always taken Buddhism of the Tibetan, or Lamaist, variety wholeheartedly. Their warrior spirits were tamed by Tibetan lamas when the Mongolian empire was at its height and the khaans were coming to grips with the complexities or controlling a multicultural empire.
Kublai Khaan found himself with a court in which all philosophies of his empire were represented. Teachers of Islam, Taoism, Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, Confucianism and Buddhism all congregated at court, offering advice in managing state affairs, and offering the Mongols a very comforting form of divine insurance. Of these religions that were represented, Tibetan Buddhism was the one that influenced the mind of the great khaan, probably because of the close resemblance to Mongolia's native shamanism.
It took centuries before Buddhism really took hold. In 1578 Altan Khaan ('golden leader') met the Tibetal leader Sonam Gyatso, was converted, and bestowed on Sonam Gyatso the title Dalai Lama. He issued new laws forbidding the sacrificial slaughter of women, slaves and animals, and ordered that an image of Gongor be worshipped in every ger.
Reincarnate lamas were also (re)born in Mongolia, the most prominent being the Jebtzun Damba, or Living Buddha, who ranks as Tibetan Buddhism's third highest incarnation. The first Jebtzun Damba reincarnation, Zanabazar, had to yield ultimate secular authority to the emperor of China in 1691 (Manchu Qing dynasty). Many of the Manchu emperors were themselves devout Tibetan Buddhists, and their partronage ensured Buddhism flourished thorughout Mongolia. An another reason for such high approval of Mongolians practicing Buddhism was that it had a considerably calming effect on them, much to the relief of the Chinese.
The Jebtzun Damba reincarnations never lost their dream of Mongolian independence, and as soon as Qing China collapsed in 1911, the eighth Jebtzun Damba, or Bogd Khaan, declared Mongolia's independence. He wielded sacred and secular power, as did the Dalai Lama in Tibet.
When the revolution of 1921 brought the communists to power, an uneasy peace existed between Mongolia's monasteries and the government. The communists realised that they were not strong enough to take on the religious establishment, partly because it consisted of such a high number of people. In 1924 the eighth Jebzun Damba died, and the communists prevented a successor from being found. (Mongolians believe that a ninth Jebzun Damba, reincarnated at a later date, is today a middle-aged lama living among other exiled Tibetans in Dharamsala, India.) In 1929 some of the property and herds belonging to the monasteries were seized and redistributed. Arrests and executions came in 1932, but the government quickly backed off as rebellions broke out. However, harassment continued - young lamas were 'reclassified' and conscripted into the army and it was forbidden to build new monasteries.
Arrests of high-ranking lamas resumed in 1935. In 1937 the bloody purge began in earnest; it is estimated that over 17,000 monks of middle and high rank (young students were spared) were arrested never to bee heard from again. Presumably they were either executed or died in Siberian labour camps. The monasteries were closed, ransacked and burned. Only four monasteries out of more than 700 were preserved as museums of the 'feudal period' - but even these were damaged.
Besides ideology, the government had other reasons for wanting to eliminate the lamas. First of all, they didn't work, and the Russians were anxious to send Mongolian labourers to Siberia. Secondly, lamas were celibate and Mongolia's population was either stable or declining, which ran counter to the Marxist goals or 'more people, more production'. Thirdly, the communists believed - with some justification - that the monasteries were backward and opposed to modernisation. Finally, the monasteries were the centre of political and economic power in the country, and the government didn't appreciate the competition.
Except at the monastery Gandan Khiid in Ulaanbaatar - which was kept as a showcase temple to impress foreigners - all religious worship and ceremonies remained outlawed until the democracy movement took hold in 1990. In the past years, there has been a phenomenal revival of Buddhism (and other religions). This is most evident during the Dalai Lama's visits, when hundreds of thousands of people flock to be blessed. Up to 150 monasteries have reopened, and even some ex-Communist Party officials have become lamas.
An entire generation of Mongolians have grown up without Buddhism. Most people no longer understand the Tibetan texts and the monasteries suffer from a chronic lack of trained Buddhist lamas, a problem that is currently being addressed by visiting theological teachers from Tibet, India, and the West.
Monasteries
The 'big three' monasteries: Gandantegchinlen Khiid (Ulaanbaatar); Erdene Zuu Khiid (Kharkhorin, Övörkhangai aimag); Amarbayasgalant Khiid (near the city of Darkhan). Monasteries and temples (süm) always have Tibetan names. After the communist purges, many religious artefacts were returned to the monasteries - though over time, many have been lost forever. Scroll paintings, statues, butter lamp candles, altar cloths and prayer wheels decorate the monasteries and temples, but they are rarely as old as the ones in India or Tibet.
The best time to visit a monastery is around 9 to 11 am, when chanting and prayers are usually in progress. You may enter the temple during chanting but must not step in front of the monks. Instead, go clockwise around the back. You can even go up to the altar, make a small cash offering, and then bow before the altar. You can also bow before the monks, and they will touch your head with their prayer books. (Prayer book thumping!) Taking photographs is forbidden.
Shamanism
Whether shamanism is actually a religion is open to debate, but it is a form of mysticism practiced by some Mongolians in the north, including the Tsaatan, Darkhad, Uriankhai and Buryats. It was the dominant belief system of Chinggis Khaan and the Mongols but has now been pushed to the cultural fringes.
The most obvious manifestation of shamanism in Mongolia is the ovoo, made of stones, wood and other matter, which you see all over the countryside. Shamanism had deep connections to the earth; digging the soil and cutting the grass is seen as profane, and one of the reasons why agriculture has traditionally been looked down on by Mongolians.
Shamaninsm is based around the shaman (boo if male, udgan if female) who has special medical and religious powers. If a shaman's powers are inherited, it is known as udmyn, or if they become apparent after a sudden period of sickness and apparitions it is known as zlain.
Shamans live alone and in isolation, but are available at any time to protect the clan and livestock from disease and evil spirits, known as lus. One of a shaman's main functions is to cure any sickness caused by the soul straying, and to accompany the soul of a dead person to the other world. Shamans act as intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds and communicate with spirits during trances, which can last up to six hours. During the main ceremony, called the Great Sacrifice, often held on the third day of the new lunar year, many animals are sacrificed to the gods. Shamans have traditionally prophesied by interpreting cracks found in the heated shoulder blades of dead sheep.
Shamanism, which fourished during the communist days because no books or buildings could be destroyed, has coexisted with Buddhism for centuries. In fact, Mongolian Buddhism has incorporated shamanic beliefs in a similar way to Tibetan Buddhists adopting the animist Bön religion of pre-Buddhist Tibet. Pockets of shamanism survive, particularly in the Khövsgöl and Dornod aimags, and among the Khoton people of Uvs. Several museums in the aimags, and in Ulaanbaatar, contain shaman clothes and implements, like the drums used to place shamans into a trance.
Christianity
Nestorian Christianity was part of the Mongolian empire long before Western missionaries arrived. These days, with poverty, unemployment, alcoholism, domestic violence and confusion in abundance, Christian and Mormon misssionaries, often from obscure fundamentalist sects, have been keenly seeking converts.
Mongolian authorities are wary of these missionaries, who sometimes come to the country under the pretext of teaching English. In Ulaanbaatar, there are now more than 30 non-Buddhist places of worship, including a new and expensive Catholic Mission Centre.
